While socially constructed gender is an important part of the identities of men and women, gender is also a symbolic power system, based on hierarchy and domination, which has fed and perpetuated different forms of inequality.
It is a system that does not only consist of words and language, but also involves a set of meanings, ways of thinking and images that influence our ways to understand and represent ourselves as men and women. It is an integral part of our lives and our culture. Power and value are important components of the patriarchy system, in which the masculine is valued more highly than the feminine and dichotomies are frequently used.
In patriarchal societies, public institutions - especially those that are connected with politics, finance and security - appear to be gender neutral. In practice, however, they give privilege to certain types of men before other men and women.
Also, positions of power are more often held by men than by women, men prioritize certain issues and make decisions that are more favourable to certain types of men and women. For example, only 14% of the Colombian Congress are women, despite a Quota Law (in Spanish: Ley de Cuotas 581/2000) that states that women should hold at least 30% of the senior public positions at both national and regional levels.
In this context, men and women are measured against created ideals of how a man and how a woman “should” behave. The term “hegemonic masculinity” describes the type of masculinity that is acceptable at the moment and the “model” that is most highly valued.
This can be different in different societies and can also vary, for example between socio-economic groups, age and ethnicity. Those that do not fulfill the ideals feel inadequate and, as the expectations of certain ideals are institutionalized through different structures throughout society, they can also be excluded from social and cultural practices on a daily basis.
Although variations exist across different societies, one central element of hegemonic masculinity tends to be power, aggression and violence: the ability to exercise power over another human being (man or woman) or an element (for example, the environment), often over something that is considered feminine and sometimes through violence.
The ideals of a man are closely connected with militarization and militarization reinforces the gender ideals. For men and the masculine, war and violence is considered a man´s game and often something natural. Equally, the armed forces and the police force are institutions in society that perpetuate and reinforce this connection, and which socially legitimize this expression of control and masculine domination. These institutions represent the strong, active and protective man, who has to defend the weak, passive and vulnerable woman.
In order to break the connection between masculinities and violence, it is necessary to redefine those ideals that we measure ourselves against, especially those that support roles that are dangerous and destructive. We need new ways of thinking about what makes a man manly and what makes a woman feminine in different spheres of our lives and in our societies. It is also necessary to change those institutional structures in society that support the damaging ideals, to give way to identities based on non-violence.
How can conscientious objection contribute to the construction of peace?
In many societies, doing military service is an important way of “becoming a man”. Similar to the idea that a woman becomes a "real woman" through motherhood, military service is a ritual passage to manhood. This practice is socially acceptable in many societies with the support of the existing pillars that define hegemonic masculinity: militarization and violence.
In Colombia this notion is closely connected with its internal armed conflict and defending one’s country through military means. Soldiers are frequently referred to as heroes, and this can be observed for example by looking at website of the Colombian Armed Forces: “Thank you, soldiers of the army! You are the worthy representation of what loyalty, courage, bravery and love of our country means.” With this in mind, objecting to military service is often interpreted as betraying your country and not fulfilling your obligations as a citizen.
As a criticism to militarism, conscientious objection is an important example through which some of these institutional structures can be changed, not just militarism but also the hegemonic vision of the prevalent masculinity. Conscientious objection can allow for a change of a hegemonic masculinity that is based on violence, confrontation and domination, replacing it with masculinities based on negotiation, cooperation and equality, which can not only transform relationships between people but also at a societal level. In Colombia it also means a rejection of a military solution to the war, which is based on values of hegemonic masculinity.
The challenge is to change those power structures that privilege hegemonic masculinities. At present, the actors with power use it to avoid changes.
Any peace plan should include a strategy to change masculinities. This is the new dimension of peace work indicated by masculinities’ studies.
Andreas Speck, War Resisters’ International
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National Army of Colombia
Note: On 14th October, young Colombians from Civis partner organizations and Swedish university students had the opportunity to participate in a video conference to discuss gender and conscientious objection.
Note: The right to conscientious objection against compulsory military service is an important part of Civis’ work with young people and youth organizations in Colombia. On the 1st September 2010 the Colombian Constitutional Court emitted a judicial ruling making it legally possible for the first time for young men to say no to carry weapons. Civis and its partner organizations played a key role in this achievement.
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